В качестве заместителей ранее встречавшихся в те существительных (во избежание повторения) употребляются следующие местоимения:

that (those - для множественного числа).

one (ones - для множественного числа).

Рассмотрим их подробнее.

That (those) употребляется для замены существительного, которое при повторении стояло бы с определенным артиклем:

That (those) в этих случаях переводится обычно тем существительным, которое оно заменяет:

В функции заместителя ранее встречавшегося в тексте исчисляемого существительного, которое при повторении имело бы неопределенный артикль, употребляется one:

При переводе в таких случаях one передается тем существительным, которое оно заменяет; чаще, однако, one совсем не переводится:

или

Если заменяемое существительное при повторении сопровождалось бы определенным артиклем, то перед one ставится определенный артикль. В этом случае заменитель the one выделяет один предмет из ряда других: 

Упражнения

1.Переведите следующие предложения:

1. Our ideologists linked the western pragmatic approach with that of the mysticism of the East. 2. The forces of peace are more powerful than those of war. 3. The industrial output of Austria in 1992 was nearly 10 per cent below that of 1991. 4. In 1951 the per hectare cotton yield in the USSR was nearly twice as great as that of Egypt. 5. The wages of the Europeans in South Africa are usually ten times as great as those of Africans. 6. One of Korea's acutest problems for centuries was that of water for irrigation purposes. 7. The first German edition of the Communist Manifesto was published in 1848; the first Russian one, early in the sixties.

1. An inert gas is the one, which does not enter into chemical combination with other substances. 2. The most distant planets as well as the nearest ones are beyond the atmosphere of the earth. 3. The vegetation of valleys is richer than that of mountains. 4. The earliest squatting places of man in our country are those discovered in the Caucasus and in the Crimea. 5. Every useful object such as iron, paper, etc., may be regarded from a twofold outlook, that of quality and that of quantity. 6. A pure substance is the one containing no admixtures. 7. This motherboard is much better than the one you showed me last time. 8. Markoni repeated Popov's experiments in London and built a radio apparatus, which was an exact replica of the Russian one.

II. Переведите текст, отметив в нем местоимения - заместители существительного:

GENERATION OF STEAM

Steam is generated in a boiler by the application of heat to some part, which is in close contact with the water it contains. The heat raises the temperature of the water to boiling point and eventually produces steam,

Sensible heat is the one added to the water during the period in which the temperature is rising and while no steam is being generated.

When boiling point is reached, the heat necessary to convert the water into steam is latent one and cannot be measured by the thermometer. Steam heated to a temperature above that which is necessary to make water boil at the given pressure is termed superheated steam.

The total heat of superheated steam is the one required superheating to the desired temperature, plus to total heat of dry saturated steam above 32° F, and at the superheated pressure.

When steam is generated in a closed vessel, the water and steam cannot be under the influence of the atmosphere, and therefore the pressure shown by the boiler is the pressure, which differs from the absolute pressure by an amount equal to atmospheric pressure.

For practical purposes atmospheric pressure is taken as 15 lbs. per sq. in., and therefore the readings for the absolute pressure of steam in a boiler are 15 lbs. greater than those shown by the pressure gauge.  

Практикум

STAR MATERIAL DISCOVERED IN SOUTH PACIFIC.
Interstellar matter formed in a supernova has been discovered on Earth now for the first time. Light coming to Earth from distant supernovas is recorded all the time. Likewise, dozen or so neutrinos from nearby Supernova 1987A have been detected. But atoms from supernovas are a different matter. In a sense, all the heavy atoms on Earth have been processed through or created in supernovas long ago and far away. But now comes evidence of atoms from a supernova that may have been deposited here only a few million years ago. An interdisciplinary team of German
scientists from the Technical University of Munich, the Max-Planck Institute (Garching), and the
University of Kiel have identified radioactive iron-60 atoms in an ocean sediment layer from a seafloor site in the South Pacific.
First, several sediment layers were dated, and only then were samples scrutinized with accelerator mass spectroscopy, needed to spot the faintly present iron. The half-life of Fe-60 (only 1.5 million years), the levels detected in the sample, and the lack of terrestrial sources point to a relatively nearby and recent supernova as the origin. How recent? Several million years. How close? An estimated 90-180 light years. If the supernova had been any closer than this, it might have had an impact on Earth's climate. The researchers believe traces of the Fe-60 layer (like the iridium layer
that signaled the coming of a dinosaur-killing meteor 65 million years ago) should be found worldwide but have not yet been able to search for it.

ELECTROPHOSPHORESCENCE GETS THE GREEN LIGHT.
In organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) electrical energy injected onto a host molecule is often transferred to luminescent "guest" molecules which then light up. Using this approach, OLEDs have been fabricated to emit colors ranging from violet to the near infrared and have been incorporated into displays already on the market. So far OLED researchers have concentrated on
maximizing fluorescent emission of light. Fluorescent OLEDs use a process whereby the energy transfer occurs between a singlet-state (total spin of zero) host molecule and a singlet-state guest
molecule. Phosphorescent OLEDs, by contrast, transfer energy from a triplet-state (total spin value of one) host to a triplet-state guest, which subsequently emits the energy as light. Phosphorescence is inherently a slower and less efficient process, but triplet states constitute the majority of electrically excited states, so putting them to work can increase the overall luminescence. This is exactly what scientists at Princeton and the University of Southern California have now done. Using both singlet and triplet states for producing green light, they have achieved quantum efficiencies (photons out divided by electrons in) of up to 8% and power efficiencies (optical power out divided by electrical power in) of up to 30 lumens/Watt. These high efficiencies are unprecedented and may have a great impact on display technology.

A RUDIMENTARY MUON MAP OF THE SKY has been carried out by the Soudan-2 detector, located deep in a Minnesota mine and built originally to look for proton decay. To be exact, Soudan records muons produced by incoming cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere. The muon imaging process clearly senses the shadow cast by the passing Moon, which temporarily blocks cosmic rays coming from that position in the sky.  

HOT DOG!

What's more American than hot dogs? How 'bout a TV show about the food that's synonymous with summer and baseball.

Loyola University Chicago wienie experts Richard Bowen and Richard Fay will be featured later this month on a PBS program that answers such questions as ``What condiments really belong on tube steak?'' Fay and Bowen explain what makes a Chicago hot dog - a Vienna frank, onions, tomato, hot peppers, mustard, sweet relish and a pickle on a steamed bun.

Fay says in Chicago ``hot dogs are for adults''...and Bowen calls Chicago the ``hot dog capital of the universe.''

An indignant Nathan's patron disputes that...but that's to be expected from a New Yorker who insists on including sauerkraut.

THING WE DON'T UNDERSTAND

Federal prosecutors are denying a reputed mobster's claim that the government implanted a tracking device in his buttocks.

Vincent Marino was shot in the butt outside a nightclub in Revere, Massachusetts - north of Boston - in 1996. He alleges that during surgery, the bullet was replaced with a computer chip that allowed federal agents to electronically track him.

Marino - who's facing racketeering charges - claims he learned of the device when arresting Drug Enforcement Administration agents asked him to sign a form authorizing removal of the device.

The DEA agent says the comment was meant to be a joke.

Not laughing, Marino went to court...prompting a federal judge earlier this week to order the government to say whether the device is still in his backside.

In response, U-S Attorney Donald Stern says the DEA ``did not implant a tracking device in...Marino's buttocks.'' He adds, tongue-in-cheek - ``We cannot speak, however, for any extraterrestrial beings.''

Marino's attorney, Robert Sheketoff, isn't satisfied and is asking for a MRI to prove there's no device in his client's behind.

IS IT "LAY" DOWN OR "LIE" DOWN?
You lie down...but you lay other things down. "Now I lay me down to sleep" is a poetic version of "Now I lie down to sleep." What makes this complicated is that the past tense of lie is lay - "I lay down earlier so I'm refreshed now." The past tense of lay is laid. Whew! Now YOU probably want to lie down awhile.

Traditional means of support eroded

Tomorrow, the G7 leaders gather to agree a deal to cut debt. As part of the Guardian's continuing campaign, we look at how Africans help themselves.

Thursday June 17, 1999

Alongside the story of famine, war and the economics of globalisation is a story, which gets much less, publicity: how Africans look after themselves.

Sometimes it is easy to lose sight in all the talk about aid that Africans do far more to improve their lives and those of their children than the West will ever do. This has been no easy task in the late 20th century, as population growth and environmental degradation have disrupted the traditional support systems.

Just staying alive is becoming an act of immense resourcefulness, says Kevin Watkins of Oxfam. He argues that we are witnessing in sub-Saharan Africa the collapse of the nation state's ability to provide for the welfare, health and education of its people.

Big changes in the way people cope with economic stress are emerging, report the development agencies, academic researchers and grassroots groups. People think of poverty in terms of subsistence farming and the landless, but increasingly the poor live in cities and are economically inactive.

It is the disabled, the elderly, the HIV orphans, the strangers, and the women who are seriously at risk and dependent. In the past, these people would have been looked after by traditional sharing and family support systems.

These are now breaking down as the global economy and the impact of debt and migration widens the social faultiness between religious, social or tribal groups. As human, environmental or social resources become scarcer, so conflicts between groups deepen.

Life in rural areas was relatively egalitarian, but now, say researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, there are increasing differences in wealth between individuals, communities and areas.

Extended families used to meet school fees; people could borrow from richer members in the family. One salaried job might support 15 people at school. In villages it is not possible, or only at extreme cost, to take on those responsibilities any more. Even those who have done reasonably well in the past decade report that life is more complex rather than better.

Structural adjustment and indebtedness is also leading to the growing monetarisation of society, says Cecilia Tacoli of the International Institute for Environment and Development. For a short period after decolonisation, she says, health, welfare and education was mostly free, but it is now a condition of the loans which governments take that people contribute.

"People need more cash today to survive. There are fewer and fewer subsidies for the public. This is changing traditional relationships between people," she says.

Oxfam reports that it is the urban poor who are being hit first and hardest because they do not produce food and a different set of social structures is emerging in towns.

"Families are becoming more nuclear. The mother might be working in a house, the daughter begging, the father doing something else. People are diversifying the way they live. They cannot depend on their relatives so much," Mr. Watkins added.

Migration is becoming an important "coping" mechanism, with more people moving greater distances in search of work and cash. Permanent migration is continuing between the countryside and the cities, says Ms Tacoli. Young men have traditionally migrated for seasonal work, but now they are moving to distant industrial farms or taking their chances and joining free-for-all mineral rushes.

Long absence from home puts stress on traditional family structures and cuts a whole generation off from decision making in communities. Young women, too, are beginning to migrate on their own, Ms Tacoli says, especially to tourist areas. But because they now have money and a voice, she says, they are questioning ownership of land in their villages. "It is a time of great change."

But the migration is also going into reverse, as political instability and increasing criminality in towns are leading people to invest back in their villages. "We are finding in many places in South Africa that people want to make sure they have alternatives in case things get really bad," Ms Tacoli says.

What has impressed researchers in recent decades is the growth of resourceful grassroots organisations such as the community schools movement in Zambia where some of the poorest people are clubbing together to put up a structure and selling goods to pay a graduate to teach numeracy and literacy. Or the campaign for universal primary education in Ghana.

The kind of micro-credit schemes pioneered by the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh have proliferated all over Africa. Aid agencies have traditionally supported such initiatives, but they are finally also being taken seriously by multilateral institutions, in particular the World Bank, which now claims in a remarkable policy shift over the last few years that change is only possible with the active participation of those it is to affect.   

 This is supposedly a true story from a recent Defence Science Lectures Series, as related by the head of the Australian DSTO's Land Operations/Simulation division.

They'd been working on some really nifty virtual reality simulators, the case in point being to incorporate Armed Reconnaissance Helicopters into exercises (from the data fusion point of view). Most of the people they employ on this sort of thing are ex- (or future) computer game programmers. Anyway, as part of the reality parameters, they include things like trees and animals. For the Australian simulation they included kangaroos. In particular, they had to model kangaroo movements and reactions to helicopters (since hordes of disturbed kangaroos might well give away a helicopter's position).

Being good programmers, they just stole some code (which was originally used to model infantry detachment reactions under the same stimuli), and changed the mapped icons, the speed parameters, etc. The first time they demonstrated this to some visiting Americans, the hotshot pilots decided to get "down and dirty" with the virtual kangaroos. So, they buzzed them and watched them scatter. The visiting Americans nod appreciatively ... then gape as the kangaroos duck around a hill, and launch about two dozen Stinger missiles at the hapless helicopter. The programmers looked rather embarrassed at forgetting to remove *that* part of the infantry coding ... and Americans leave muttering comments about not wanting to mess with the Aussie wildlife....

As an addendum, simulator pilots from that point onwards avoided kangaroos like the plague, just like they were meant to do in the first place....